Chronological overview of Shabtis development

Middle Kingdom
Second Intermediate Period
New Kingdom
Third Intermediate Period
Late Period
Ptolemaic Kingdom

The Gods and Their Makers by Edwin Long, 1878

11th Dynasty
2134 – 1991 BC, Middle Kingdom

Rise of Osiris worship with Abydos as centre.

The figurines are made from beeswax. This wax was said to have magical powers of protection, regeneration and resurrection. The statuettes depict a straightened body with the arms along its sides. Their form is elementary and they are fully naked with clearly visible sexual characteristics. Wrapped in linen, the figurine is laid in a small wooden box and interred with the deceased. The figurines do not have a worker role as yet, and it is assumed that they are intended to replace the body of the deceased in case it should perish or decay.

12th Dynasty

1991 – 1782 BC, Middle Kingdom

By the end of the dynasty, shabtis with an early form of the shabti formula start appearing. These specific shabtis are assigned a worker role. Although more than one shabti was interred in a number of tombs, this remains limited to a few per tomb, with a maximum of five to ten. With the exception of kings’ tombs, the number of shabtis will remain low until the second half of the 19th dynasty.

13th – 16th Dynasties

1782 – 1663 BC, Second Intermediate Period

Since they are potentially dangerous to the mummy, hieroglyphs of people, animals and reptiles are depicted in a mutilated form. Birds, for example, are shown without feet, and snakes without heads.

17th Dynasty

1663 – 1570 BC, Second Intermediate Period

Struggle of the Thebans against the Hyksos who had conquered northern Egypt.

18th Dynasty

1570 – 1418 BC, Early 18th dynasty, New Kingdom

Ahmose I, the first pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, expels the Hyksos kings from Egypt. Thebes once again becomes the central capital of Egypt. In the Valley of the Kings and Queens, to the west of the Nile, kings (pharaohs), queens and princes are buried in magnificently decorated tombs.

Shabtis
The New Kingdom marks a period of high-quality shabtis. Especially during the 18th and 19th dynasties, the quality of form and details can sometimes be superior. Necklaces (usekh/wesekh) appear for the first time, and we see shabtis in daily clothes and magnificent wigs, affectionately embracing beautifully stylised Ba-birds. The faces, clothes and sandals of many stone shabtis are extremely beautiful and intriguing.

Over the course of the New Kingdom, the role of the shabtis as workers for the deceased becomes more important and by the end of this period large numbers of shabtis, including overseers, are interred together.

Ahmose I, the first pharaoh of the New Kingdom, is probably the first pharaoh to take shabtis with him into the tomb. Even for him it no longer seems self-evident that he does not have to work in the Hereafter, so he takes shabtis with him to be on the safe side.

Since the workmanship of shabtis undergoes an enormous development in the New Kingdom, six separate sections are included below regarding the period ending with the 20th dynasty

Shabti coffins
With the shabti of Amenhotep (last one in this section) we also see a matching coffin. These coffins are known from the Middle Kingdom onward, often bear resemblance to the owner’s coffin, and begin to fall out of use once the shabtis are provided with implements around 1400 BC. As time passes, the shabtis with implements are made in greater numbers and placed in shabti coffins

1418 – 1350 BC, Mid 18th dynasty, New Kingdom

Shabtis with tools
During the reign of Thutmose IV (1419 – 1386 BC), many shabtis are given tools such as hoes with wide or narrow blades, and baskets or bags. At first as individual pieces that are mounted separately or presented as side gifts, and later directly modelled or painted on the statuettes. Until Akhenaton (1350 BC) the baskets and bags are carried at the front of the shabtis (see the first two shabtis)

Amarna period

1350 – 1334 BC, Late 18th dynasty, New Kingdom

Rule of Akhenaton and his queen, Nefertiti, with Aton as the main god. They abandon the traditional worships of Amun and Osiris, and introduce a new one centring on Aten.

Shabtis
This may be the only period where shabtis may have ear decorations (see Hat). It is also around or during this period that women’s wigs first appear (see Isis). Akhenaton’s shabtis do not carry tools, but they do wear Ankh-amulets or pharaonic regalia such as the crook and the flail. The only inscriptions on the Akhenaton shabtis are the kings’ names and titles.

Post-Amarna

1334 – 1293 BC, Late 18th dynasty, New Kingdom

Tutankhamun ended the worship of Aton and rehabilitated the cult of Amun.

19th Dynasty

1293 – 1185 BC, New Kingdom

A new golden age for Egypt with great pharaohs such as Seti I and Ramses II.

By now the production of faience and terracotta has become commonplace and the number of shabtis is increasing to several tens per tomb. By the end of the dynasty the shabti with both hands on his skirt has been transformed into overseer. An overseer is responsible for a group of workers and is equipped with one or two whips resting across the upper arms.

How this transformation into overseer took place is not clear. It seems that the Egyptians were experimenting with different forms. Neshor, for example, is a worker with winged shoulders that seem to carry two whips, and the last pictures show, from left to right, a wooden overseer with probably two whips, a winged overseer with a whip resting on his arm, and finally a simple terracotta worker upgraded by affixing a skirt. During the 21st Dynasty the overseer becomes more recognisable because one of the arms is extended along the side.

At the end of the dynasty the priestly side lock comes into use (see Huy), and it will be depicted on priests until the start of the 20th dynasty. The roughly formed terracotta shabtis with curved feet are becoming popular too.

20th Dynasty

1185 – 1070 BC, New Kingdom

The Ramesside Period is a time of unrest, with fights against the Libians, Libyans and Sea people. Egypt weakens after the death of Ramses III due to corruption, civil unrest and famine.

The entirely new (possibly foetal) peg-shabti form also known as “contour perdu” (meaning ‘lost contour’) makes its first appearance and is interred with both private persons and royals (see Ramses VI). This type is only in vogue for a couple of decades.

21st – 24th Dynasties

1070 – 715 BC, Third Intermediate Period

Pharaonic rule became so weak during the reign of Ramses XI that governor Smendes in Tanis in Lower Egypt could found the 21st dynasty, probably even before the death of Ramses XI.

In Thebes in Upper Egypt the High priests of Amon took power, and after a few decades former High Priest Pinedjem I proclaimed himself pharaoh over Upper Egypt.

The 22nd-24th Dynasties (945 – 715 BC) are the Libian Period. The Libian berber Sheshonq I becomes king of Lower Egypt and founder of the twenty-second dynasty. Under Libian rule the country lapses into small fiefdoms and local rulers.

(U)shabtis
This is one of the most fascinating periods for shabti enthusiasts. Thanks to the discovery of the Royal Cache DB320 in 1881 and the Bab el Gasus priest cachette, Cache II in 1891 (both near Luxor) many shabtis were spread throughout the world. Since so many mummies, boxes, funerary items and shabtis were recovered in a short time, thousands of shabtis were given and/or sold to museums, dealers, tourists and collectors. Even the souvenir shop of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo sold original shabtis.

Although the workmanship of the shabtis does not come anywhere near that of the New Kingdom, the faience shabtis of this dynasty catch the eye thanks to their beautiful colour. From the deep cobalt-blue also known as “Royal blue” to a magnificent light blue.

A common attribute is the seshed/fillet headband (see Tentipet and Nesimenemhetep). We also see clearly recognisable overseers with a whip in one hand and the other arm along the side, supervising 10 workers each (see Djedptahiufankh).

Ancient Egypt used 10-day weeks, and a year consisted of 360 days plus 5 holidays. Each deceased person was accompanied by some 400 shabtis (365 workers, one for every day, 36 overseers, 1 for every week), male and/or female, regardless of the gender of the deceased. The women can be recognised by the breasts depicted just below the wig (see Isetemkheb, wife of Pinedjem I). The nipples are sometimes visible.

With a few exceptions shabtis are no longer made from wood or stone, and faience and terracotta are now popular. Shabtis from the north of Egypt differ from those found in Thebes in terms of faience and style (see Hornakht). They also miss the special blue colour that is so characteristic of the shabtis from the Theban region. In the north (Tanis) bronze shabtis have been found as well (see Psusennes I), and around 850 BC the short wig becomes in vogue here. Also special are the overseer shabtis depicted in striding pose (whip on forearm, left foot forward).

On the shabti of Pinedjem II (970 BC) the term “Ushebti” is used for the first time, and from this moment on shabtis are called Ushabtis. Prof. Hans Schneider made me aware that ‘ushabti’ is a contamination of ‘ushebti’ and ‘shabti’ and its use is best avoided. But since the term ‘ushabtis’ has been common in recent decades and I couldn’t get a dot.com site with the usual names, I decided to choose ushabtis.com. In the texts I use the term shabti(s) and ushebti(s).

By the end of this period the ushebtis are getting smaller and quality is also suffering. In many graves from the 22nd dynasty and later, only small, roughly-formed figurines made of mud, dried clay or terracotta are interred.

25th Dynasty

747 – 656 BC, Third Intermediate Period, Kushite period

Kushite rulers unify Nubia and Egypt with Taharqa as most famous ruler. The capital is Napata.

Ushebtis
Under the Kushite rulers beautiful ushebtis are made of stone. Pharaoh Taharqa took more than a thousand stone shabtis with him in the tomb. The ushebtis have an archaic form which closely resembles statues from the Middle Kingdom, with fuller faces, tight mouths and large ears. Influences from the New Kingdom are also visible on many shabtis.

According to a number of researchers, faience ushebtis from this period are light green or green and the popularity of this colour increases from the 22nd dynasty. Another theory is that they were originally light blue but have suffered from discoloration due to external influences. From light blue to green, from green to brown and sometimes even to black. This may well be a plausible theory. To wit, when you take a close look at green ushebtis, you will often find small blue areas without any discoloration. Also, there are a number of ushebtis where discoloration from blue to green is clearly visible, probably because some parts have been less exposed to outside influences.

26th Dynasty

664 – 525 BC, Late Period

Saite Period: Psamtek I reunites Egypt and strengthens the ties with the Greeks. Under his rule a period of prosperity dawns for Egypt. Capital is Sais in Lower Egypt.

Ushebtis
In this period, which is also called “Saite renaissance” or “Saite time”, a time of great prosperity leads to the creation of beautiful ushebtis. After the first pharaohs nothing is made of stone any more, and faience is the material of choice. A lot of attention is paid to design and the ushebtis belong to the most beautiful faience ones ever in terms of quality, workmanship and details. Until the 30th dynasty is well on its way, this style changes very little and the Egyptians are able to maintain this level.

Although the typical form of the overseer in the dress of daily life no longer occurs, it is likely that it does not disappear altogether. In many tombs large numbers of blank or partially inscribed ushebtis are found together with larger specimens containing the full text of the usual shabti formula. It is plausible that this last group are assigned the role of overseer.

The ushebtis are equipped with a back pillar, which in some cases carries an inscription (see Horemheb and Hekaemsaf). The hieroglyphs are sometimes pressed into the shabti using a mould, but they are often applied manually, in which case both the outline and the inside of the hieroglyph can be embellished.

The two hoes that are visible on the workers’ upper arms from the 18th dynasty are replaced by one pick and one hoe. The back pillar and the feet of the shabti are placed on a trapezoid block. Until this dynasty the false Osirian god’s beard is only worn by some members of the royal family, including the pharaoh. From now on private persons are also allowed to wear a beard and all ushebtis now come equipped with the beard, sometimes beautifully detailed. The bag which is still worn on the middle of the back during the Third Intermediate period now often hangs from a rope over the left shoulder (see Neferibrasaneith).

27th – 31st Dynasties

525 – 332 BC, Late Period

Persian period: Egypt becomes a Persian province. Under the 28th Dynasty, Egypt is freed again and the power of the pharaohs is based on alliance with the Greeks.

Ushebtis
There are several features on the basis of which a normal faience ushebti can be placed in this period; the external differences with those of the 26th dynasty are small.

New is the T-band inscription, see Nesbanebdjed. This type of ushebti consists of fully inscribed specimens and smaller ones with a T-band inscription that could be the workers, in which case the larger ones are overseers.

The writing differs in some details from the 28th dynasty. On some ushebtis the sunbeams (Gardiner N8) used in the text “Sehedj” consist of short, point-like lines instead of continuous lines. Also, the small water symbol (Gardiner N35) is often depicted with only three wave crests. Unfortunately, this is not a general rule, and the old and the new writing style may occur within the same set of ushebtis.

Ptolemaic Kingdom

332 – 30 BC, Greek period

Alexander the Great conquers Egypt; after his death he is succeeded by Ptolemy I Soter who declares himself pharaoh. Alexandria becomes the leading city of the Greek world.

Ushebtis
In this last period, where a lot of ushebtis still accompany the deceased, they are made with beautifully thick glazing (next to the regular faience, clay and terracotta). They already occur during the 30th Dynasty. They are often a two-colour (bichrome) light blue with a dark blue or purplish wig and hieroglyphs (see the third picture for a two-colour ushebti). A number of specimens have round faces and turned-up noses, but ushebtis with beautifully stylised faces and long beards are still being made (see Semset). Over time, the writing gets sloppier and often becomes illegible.

Palaeographical differences can also be seen. The Maat feather (Gardiner H6) is sometimes used with the “true of voice” hieroglyphs instead of the usual plinth hieroglyph (Gardiner Aa 11). In addition, the word “im” is written as a reed leaf (Gardiner M17), and the owl (Gardiner G17) is replaced with the boat symbol (Gardiner P1).

Although the overview ends here with the Ptolemaic period, this is not the end of the custom of giving the deceased ushebtis to accompany them into the grave. However, so far, too little is known about types and sites to be able to say anything meaningful here. According to a study presented in Florence in 2015, ushebtis that might be centuries younger than 30 BC have been found in Roman provinces.